Combat Management System versus Command and Control (C2)

111

Combat Management System versus Command and Control (C2)-Fleet Rear-Admiral Dr Sorin LEARSCHI

1. Introduction

In the context of modern military operations, the effective management of resources and information is critical to mission success. The Combat Management System (CMS) and Command and Control (C2) are two fundamental concepts which, although interlinked, are distinguished by their specific roles and functions within military structures. Essentially, CMS is an advanced technological system used for the management of combat campaigns, facilitating the integration and analysis of data to support real-time tactical decisions. C2, on the other hand, focuses on the process of leadership and co-ordination of the armed forces, taking responsibility for setting long-term strategies and objectives as well as their implementation.

To emphasise the differences between these two entities, it is important to understand that the CMS often functions as a technological tool focused on providing critical information and rapid assessment of the battlefield situation. Using sensors, drones and other modern data collection techniques, CMS optimises operations by providing predictive analysis and scenarios of potential conflict. In contrast, C2 involves an essential human dimension, emphasising the role of military leaders in formulating strategic orders and ensuring cohesion between the different units involved. This distinction not only emphasises the technological nature of CMS, but also the pedagogical and managerial aspects of C2.

A good understanding of the differences and interactions between CMS and C2 is crucial for defence and security players, as each system contributes to the overall effectiveness of military operations. Exploring this complex relationship is not just a matter of terminological clarification, but is also a vital element in the development of contemporary military doctrine, helping to define optimal strategies in modern warfare. This introduction will serve as the basis for detailed analyses of each system, facilitating an understanding of their specific contributions to the effectiveness of military operations.

Command and control in military action is the process by which a commander directs, co-ordinates and supervises the forces under his authority to accomplish a military mission. It is an essential combat function, present in all other military functions and decisive to the success of any operation.

Command involves making decisions, giving orders and taking responsibility for the actions of subordinates. Control, on the other hand, involves continuously monitoring the situation, adjusting plans and ensuring that orders are carried out correctly.

Modern doctrines, especially in NATO, promote the concept of “Mission Command”, which gives subordinates the freedom to decide how to fulfil a mission, according to the intention of the superior commander. This type of command encourages initiative and adaptability on the battlefield.

In modern military operations, command and control (C2) functions as an integrated system of decision making, co-ordination and oversight, intensively supported by technology and real-time information. Here’s how the process works:

Shared operational picture: Commanders and staff use computer networks, sensors and surveillance systems to build a clear and up-to-date picture of the battlefield. This allows all echelons to understand the situation in a synchronised way.
Accelerating decision-making: Modern technologies allow data to be analysed quickly, scenarios to be simulated and decisions to be made at a much faster pace than in the past. This allows commanders to react effectively to changes on the ground.
Transmitting orders: Modern C2 systems ensure that orders are transmitted quickly and securely to forces in the field, regardless of distance or combat conditions. Communication is encrypted and redundant to prevent interruptions.
Mission-based command: In NATO, subordinates are encouraged to receive the commander’s intent and objective, but have the freedom to decide how to achieve it. This approach enhances initiative and adaptability.
Subsystem integration: An effective C2 system links three essential components: decision, execution and information. Only through their coherent interaction can a modern military operation be successful.

In practice, mission command works by giving subordinates freedom of action, based on a clear understanding of the higher commander’s intent and mission objective. Here is how this concept is applied in the field:

The commander’s intent is key – Instead of giving detailed orders, the commander conveys the purpose of the mission and the desired outcome. For example, he doesn’t say “attack position X at time Y”, but “secure control of position X to allow our forces to advance”.
Subordinates’ initiative is encouraged – Lower-level commanders decide how to achieve the objective by adapting to conditions on the ground. That way, if unexpected obstacles arise, they can react quickly without waiting for further orders.
Trust and training are fundamental – For this system to work, it needs well-trained leaders who are able to understand the operational context and make decisions consistent with higher intent.
Communication is continuous – Although subordinates have freedom, they liaise with the higher echelon to report progress and receive status updates.

Within NATO, this type of command is standard, and is considered more effective in complex and dynamic environments. A practical example can be found in the MApN’s doctrinal analysis, which shows how mission-based command is applied in the Land Forces Group, giving subordinates autonomy in planning and execution, within the limits of the received intent.

The Combat Management System (CMS) is a type of command and control (C2) system, used mainly in the naval domain. It integrates sensors, weapons systems, communications and other on-board equipment to provide commanders with a unified operational picture and to support real-time tactical decision-making.

A modern CMS allows:

Surveillance and reconnaissance by integrating radar, electro-optical and acoustic sensors.
Assess threats and prioritise targets.
Arms control and target engagement coordination.
Communication and interoperability with other naval, air or land units through tactical data links.

In short, CMS is a practical application of the C2 concept, adapted to the maritime environment, where speed of reaction and information integration are essential for mission success.

In a real-life naval scenario, a Combat Management System (CMS) functions as the “brain” of the ship, integrating all relevant information to enable rapid tactical decision-making. Here is how this process works in practice:

Detection and identification: The ship’s sensors (radar, sonar, electro-optical cameras) detect objects around it – from aeroplanes and missiles to submarines or other ships. The CMS collects this data and displays it in a unified operational picture.
Threat assessment: the system automatically analyses the data and classifies targets according to threat level. For example, an anti-ship missile detected at close range will be flagged as top priority.
Decision making: the commander, assisted by the CMS, decides what action to take – launching a countermeasure, engaging the target with on-board weaponry or manoeuvring the ship to avoid.
Target engagement: The CMS transmits commands to weapon systems (missiles, cannons, torpedoes), coordinating automatic or semi-automatic firing, depending on tactical settings.
Communication and coordination: Through tactical data links (such as Link 16), the CMS exchanges information with other ships, aircraft or command centres, providing a common picture of the battlefield.

A concrete example: on a convoy escort mission, the CMS detects an unknown aircraft rapidly approaching. The system classifies it as a potential enemy, the commander authorises the launch of a surface-to-air missile, and the CMS executes the engagement within seconds – all while maintaining contact with the other ships in the group.

2. Basic definitions

In the context of modern military operations, clarification of terminology is essential for a proper understanding of the strategic tools employed. In this light, two fundamental concepts stand out: Combat Management System (CMS) and Command and Control (C2). Although interconnected in practice, each of these terms carries distinct connotations and fulfils specific roles in operational decision-making.

A Combat Management System (CMS) is a complex technological solution designed to integrate, analyse and manage information from a variety of sources, thereby facilitating the coordination of actions between different military units. CMS functionalities include monitoring the battlefield situation, assessing threats and optimising the deployment of available resources. This technological platform allows commanders to gain a clear overview of operational dynamics while ensuring rapid reaction to unforeseen events. The CMS also supports inter-agency collaboration, facilitating information sharing and co-ordination of actions between naval, land and air forces.

Command and Control (C2), on the other hand, refers to the process by which military leaders plan, coordinate and manage military operations. This system is more than simply an information management tool; C2 encompasses organisational structures, procedures and processes that ensure effective decision-making at all levels of the hierarchy. Satisfying the need for rapid adaptation and crisis response, C2 relies not only on technology, but also on the human skills of leaders and support teams. Crucially, C2 is integrated into the day-to-day activities of the armed forces, constantly interacting with the CMS to ensure the availability of the information needed to make informed decisions.

Thus, while CMS focuses on the processing and management of actionable information, C2 focuses on the overall leadership decision framework and strategy. This distinction is not merely theoretical, but has direct implications for the effectiveness of military operations, emphasising the importance of both technology and leadership skills within the modern operational environment. In conclusion, a thorough understanding of these two fundamental concepts is crucial to navigating the complexities of contemporary warfare dynamics.

2.1. Combat Management System (CMS)

The Combat Management System (CMS) serves as a critical element in modern military operations, providing an integrated platform designed to improve situational awareness, decision making and operational efficiency. In naval operations, a CMS enables commanders to effectively manage the myriad of systems utilised on naval vessels, including sensors, weapons, navigation and communication technologies. This integration is vital as it enables the real-time processing and dissemination of information that is essential for engaging threats, coordinating responses and maintaining tactical superiority.

In essence, CMS is responsible for the collection, evaluation and dissemination of operational data. Advanced algorithms and data fusion techniques allow it to synthesise information from various sources such as radar, sonar and other tactical data links. This process helps identify targets, assess threats and prioritise engagements. The user interface typically allows operators to visualise the battlefield in a way that simplifies complex decision-making processes, presenting data through intuitive graphical displays that reflect the dynamic nature of combat environments. Furthermore, CMS is designed to support a wide range of mission types, from anti-air and anti-surface warfare to network-centric operations, ensuring the system is versatile and responsive to an evolving battlespace.

In addition, modern CMS architectures often employ networked capabilities that facilitate interoperability between varied platforms, including joint forces and coalition partners. This connectivity is essential for executing coordinated operations across multiple domains, reinforcing the importance of seamless data exchange and command integration. As technology evolves, CMS continues to incorporate advances such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, enhancing predictive analytics and automated decision support capabilities. Therefore, effective implementation of a CMS not only enhances a force’s operational capability, but also lays the foundation for future innovations in military command systems, marking a significant evolution in the conduct of warfare. Understanding the vital role of the CMS lays the foundation for deepening the broader command and control (C2) framework, where strategic oversight and operational management converge.

2.2 Command and Control (C2)

Command and Control (C2) is an essential function in the management of military and civilian operations, coordinating human, material and information resources to achieve strategic objectives. Underpinning this concept are the notions of efficiency, communication and rapid reaction, vital in complex operational environments. The C2 structure is based on a set of processes that facilitate informed decision-making, resource management and rapid adaptation to changes in the operational environment. This combination of processes is essential to ensure a constant and reliable flow of information between the different levels of command, both during mission planning and execution.

The implementation of an effective Command and Control structure involves the use of advanced technologies and analytical tools that optimise decision-making. C2 systems must allow the integration of information from various sources, including data from field sensors, artificial intelligence and real-time data analysis. This provides extended visibility of the operational situation, enhancing responsiveness in a dynamic environment. C2 also plays a fundamental role in establishing the flow of communication between different units and in managing interactions with other agencies, such as international or civilian, to coordinate joint actions in a theatre of operations.

Differentiating between C2 and a Combat Management System (CMS) is key to understanding the complementarity of these two concepts. While C2 focuses on strategies to direct and coordinate human and information resources, CMS specialises in the management of tactical resources and combat operations, with a structure geared more towards the implementation of specific activities on the battlefield. Thus, C2 provides the conceptual and strategic framework necessary for CMS systems to conduct their work effectively, ensuring that each resource is optimally utilised according to established plans. This interplay between the two systems reflects the complexity of the modern operational environment and emphasises the importance of tight integration between command and execution logics.

3. CMS functionalities

The functionalities of a Combat Management System (CMS) are varied and essential to the effectiveness of contemporary military operations. Through these functionalities, CMS enables systematic operational planning, optimisation of resource utilisation and integration of advanced technology into decision processes. For operational planning, CMS provides analytical tools for generating, evaluating and adjusting mission strategies. This includes scenario simulations, helping commanders to predict potential enemy reactions and develop appropriate responses to various tactical situations. By facilitating the analysis of historical data and intelligence from the field, the CMS transforms raw information into operational knowledge, essential to the success of any mission.

Sensor integration is another pivotal functionality of the CMS, which enables the collection and correlation of data from various sources. This system relies on a complex network of sensors, including radars, optical systems, and UAV platforms, which provide real-time information about the situation on the battlefield. By interconnecting these systems, CMS synthesises the data to provide a comprehensive picture of the operational environment, thereby improving the situational awareness of military forces. This functionality not only supports tactical decisions, but also helps to minimise risk, as accurate information enables threat assessment and anticipation of enemy actions.

Resource management is also a crucial functionality built into CMS. This includes ensuring the optimal utilisation of available resources, from personnel units, vehicles and equipment, to co-ordinating transport and supply during operations. An effective CMS monitors the status and availability of resources, enables advanced logistics planning and maximises operational efficiency. Detailed control of resources not only supports military performance, but is also essential in managing costs, ensuring proper allocation of budgets and resources. Therefore, CMS functionalities constitute the fundamental pillars in facilitating effective, adaptive, and responsive military operations ready to meet the contemporary challenges of modern warfare.

3.1. Operational planning

Operational planning is a central element in the effective management of military operations, combining strategic and tactical aspects to ensure optimal coordination of resources and activities on the battlefield. A Combat Management System (CMS) facilitates this process by providing advanced analysis and simulation tools that enable planners to develop strategies tailored to the dynamic conditions of contemporary conflicts. By integrating sophisticated algorithms and intelligence data, they help to anticipate enemy behaviour and develop plans to maximise the effectiveness of operations.

A significant aspect of operational planning is the ability to integrate complex variables including terrain analysis, climate, logistics and available human resources. CMSs enable the use of predictive modelling that assesses the impact of various scenarios, thereby generating more robust strategic options. For example, by simulating different deployment tactics, planners can determine the optimal time for offensive or defensive actions, minimising risk and maximising resource efficiency. In addition, the visual interface of these systems facilitates collaboration between different levels of command, ensuring seamless communication and alignment of tactical and strategic objectives.

In addition to the accuracy of the information provided, a CMS also provides tools to assess the performance of operational plans, ensuring that lessons learnt from past operations are integrated into future planning. This self-assessment capability is essential not only for improving the effectiveness of current operations, but also for developing military doctrines that are better adapted to the emerging realities of modern warfare. In this context, the efficiency and flexibility of the operational planning process becomes crucial, underlining the role of the CMS as an indispensable tool in the armoury of contemporary armed forces.

3.2. Sensor integration

Sensor integration plays a crucial role in streamlining the functionalities of combat management (CMS) and C2 (command and control) systems. This integration enables the rapid and accurate collection of data from a variety of sensor sources, including radars, video cameras, acoustic sensors and various UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) platforms. The resulting data is essential in forming an integrated operational picture, providing decision-makers with a valuable tool for analysing tactical situations in real time and optimising response strategies.

An important feature of sensor integration is the ability of sensors to operate in an interconnected manner, allowing them to communicate with each other and contribute to a continuous flow of information. This not only improves the accuracy of tactical decisions, but also reduces reaction times to emerging threats. Advanced sensors are also equipped with machine learning algorithms and artificial intelligence, with the ability to analyse the collected data and identify anomalies or patterns that might escape human observation. Thus, the integration of sensors within the CMS becomes a determining factor for anticipating enemy actions and formulating adaptive tactics.

In addition to practical functionality, sensor integration involves significant challenges. Interoperability between different types of sensors and platforms as well as standardisation of communication protocols are essential to maximise efficiency. Cybersecurity also plays a paramount role as transmitted data can be vulnerable to external attacks and manipulation. Ensuring a robust security infrastructure will protect not only sensitive information but also the integrity of the entire battle management system. In conclusion, sensor integration is a central pillar in the CMS and C2 architecture, shaping the future of military operations through a data-driven approach that promises more effective coordination and more favourable outcomes in complex missions.

3.3. Resource management

Resource management in the context of Combat Management Systems (CMS) is a critical functionality that plays a central role in optimising the operational performance of a military force. This function focuses on the allocation, utilisation and monitoring of available resources – human, logistical and technical – to ensure efficiency and effectiveness in the conduct of operations. Resource management allows dynamic co-ordination of activities, facilitating adaptability in the face of fluctuating situations on the ground. Through advanced algorithms and robust databases, CMSs are able to analyse real-time resource availability, forecast future needs and optimise resource allocation.

In terms of the use of modern technologies, resource management benefits from integration with C2 (Command and Control) information systems, thus ensuring synergy between logistics management and operations coordination. This integration facilitates increased visibility over resources, allowing units to react promptly to changes in the operational environment and to make rapid adjustments in the allocation of manpower or equipment. Through simulation and analysis tools, military leaders can assess the impact of decisions taken, anticipating both the immediate and longer-term consequences on mission deployment.

An important aspect of resource management in CMSs is the ability to prioritise the use of resources according to strategic mission objectives. This process involves continually assessing the performance of available resources and ensuring a fair and rational distribution, taking into account both immediate and long-term operational needs. The ability to implement such management not only optimises the use of resources, but also contributes significantly to increasing the readiness and responsiveness of the armed forces to the complex challenges of contemporary conflicts.

4. C2 functionalities

C2 (Command and Control) functionalities are an essential aspect of the management of military operations, describing the processes by which the commanding authority coordinates resources and actions to respond effectively to battlefield challenges. At the centre of these functionalities is force coordination, a complex process involving the integration of different military units, including land, air and maritime forces. Through C2 systems, leaders can monitor the deployment of resources in real time, ensuring that each unit fulfils its specific role in the overall strategy. This type of coordination requires not only an advanced technological infrastructure, but also a deep understanding of battlefield dynamics, the ability to anticipate enemy movements and adaptability in the face of unexpected situations.

Strategic decision-making is another vital C2 functionality. Commanders must quickly and efficiently analyse information from a variety of sources to determine the best courses of action. Using data collected through a variety of channels, backed by military intelligence, commanders can assess the risks and benefits of each strategic option. This ability to make informed and rapid decisions can significantly influence the outcome of a mission, providing a competitive advantage over the enemy and ensuring the efficient deployment of available resources.

Communication between units is a fundamental functionality of C2 systems, facilitating real-time information exchange. This goes beyond the transmission of orders from commanders to subordinates, but also includes the two-way flow of feedback crucial for adjusting different strategies according to the evolving operational situation. Effective communication allows not only improved cohesion between units, but also their adaptability to rapid changes on the battlefield. By strengthening these C2 functionalities – force coordination, strategic decisions and inter-unit communication – an operational ecosystem is created that maximises the potential of each unit, turning information into decisive action.

4.1. Coordination of forces

Force co-ordination is an essential aspect of combat management with a direct impact on the effectiveness of military operations. In the context of Command and Control (C2) and Combat Management Systems (CMS), this coordination is an operational necessity, based on the integration of human and technical resources in order to achieve strategic objectives. Through the advanced software solutions included in the CMS, it facilitates the alignment of forces in a way that maximises the efficient use of resources, reducing risks and improving responses to emerging challenges on the battlefield.

A key determinant of force co-ordination is the coherent flow of information, which enables rapid data exchange between units. In this way, C2 systems enable military leaders to obtain an up-to-date operational picture, essential for effective coordination of dispersed resources. This information flow goes beyond the transmission of commands to include situation analyses, tactical assessments and operational intelligence, contributing to a tailored and proactive response to developments on the ground. Thanks to this transparency and integration, defence forces can react faster and more effectively, adapting their strategies according to the information received.

In addition, force co-ordination is influenced by the interaction between different levels of command. From high-level strategic decisions to the execution of operations on the ground, each stage involves synchronisation of actions and resources. By using C2 systems, clear communication and coordination protocols can be established to ensure that each unit operates in harmony with the overall mission objectives. This creates a unified operational framework in which processes are optimised and effectiveness is increased, demonstrating the essential importance of force coordination in modern armed conflict management.

4.2. Strategic decisions

Strategic decisions in the context of combat and command (C2) management systems are the foundation that supports effective coordination and resource allocation in military operations. These decisions are often influenced by a number of internal and external factors, which can range from tactical situation assessment to political and economic considerations. In essence, strategic decisions involve the in-depth analysis of available information, the assessment of options, the appraisal of risks and opportunities, and the formulation of long-term plans designed to maximise the operational advantages of organised forces.

A crucial aspect of this decision-making process is the integration of data and analyses from both C2 and combat management systems. This information is essential to develop a picture that enables leaders to anticipate enemy reactions, optimise force deployment and implement effective strategies. The use of advancing technologies such as artificial intelligence and big data analytics has significantly transformed the way strategic decisions are made. These tools enable rapid and accurate assessment of complex scenarios, facilitating informed decisions that can be implemented smoothly under pressure.

Moreover, strategic decisions are not a stand-alone process; they require constant communication and effective interaction between the different levels of the Command. This interaction not only helps to ensure a flow of information, but also contributes to building trust between the teams involved, which is essential for the success of operations. Thus, the effectiveness of strategic decisions depends on the collaborative dynamics between decision-makers, who must be prepared to respond quickly to changes in the environment and adjust plans in line with the evolving tactical situation. This strategic flexibility, supported by modern technologies and an adaptable organisational culture, is proving essential in an increasingly complex and unpredictable operational landscape.

4.3. Communication between units

In the context of combat management systems and command and control (C2) structures, communication between units plays a key role in ensuring operational coherence and mission effectiveness. It relies on a constant flow of information, which must be rapid, clear and accurate, to facilitate real-time reactions in a constantly changing theatre of conflict. Communication is not just a technical element but a dynamic process involving the integration of human factors, communication technologies and organisational structures.

To ensure effective communication between units, it is imperative that messages are standardised and use common terminology to minimise ambiguity. Communication media, including digital networks, radio channels, and secure messaging systems, must be interoperable, allowing different units to work together seamlessly. Regular training sessions can also improve team cohesion and ensure that all members of the organisation are familiar with communication processes and structures, which is crucial in crisis situations.

Complementarily, constant feedback between units is vital for adapting strategies during the course of missions. A culture of open communication, which promotes continuous discussion, evaluation and adjustment, contributes to the development of an atmosphere of trust and co-operation. Thus, in order to streamline operations, units need to prioritise not only communication technologies, but also staff training in interpersonal skills and information management, to turn challenges encountered into opportunities for rapid learning and adaptation. This integrated approach to inter-unit communication ensures not only short-term mission success, but also solidifies a robust and agile operational structure for the long term.

5. Interaction between CMS and C2

The interaction between a Combat Management System (CMS) and Command and Control (C2) structures is essential to the effectiveness of modern military operations. The CMS, which deals with combat resource management and tactical data processing, integrates directly with C2 systems, where strategic decisions are formulated and implemented. This collaboration is crucial because the CMS provides real-time information about the status of units, contextual threats and the results of previous actions, all of which support command decisions. In this framework, CMS acts not only as a data provider, but also as a facilitator of information flow, interpreting and synthesising data to support decision analysis.

The operational synergy between CMS and C2 manifests itself in various ways. Effective co-operation between these two components ensures a superior level of response to unpredictable threats or situations. For example, during a counter-aggression operation, a CMS system can constantly update the status of the forces in combat, informing the C2 of developments on the ground. In this way, the C2 can effectively adjust strategy based on the data provided, optimising resource allocation and unit coordination. This interactivity leads to more cohesive and coordinated military action, reducing reaction times and improving operational results.

But for this interaction to work optimally, both systems need to be interoperable, reflecting and communicating data in a standardised way. Technology contributes significantly to this by developing common platforms that allow the integration of the various C2 and CMS systems, thus facilitating the rapid transfer of information. Joint training for military personnel also provides a deeper understanding of how these systems can maximise their effectiveness in working together. In conclusion, the interaction between CMS and C2 generates not only better co-ordination of operations, but also increased adaptability to the emerging challenges of the contemporary battlefield.

5.1 The role of CMS in C2

In the context of operational conflict management, battle management systems (CMS) play a key role in the leadership and co-ordination structure known as Command & Control (C2). CMS facilitates the integration of information from various sources and provides essential transparency in the decision-making processes that define the success of a mission. By providing a platform for collecting, processing and analysing data, the CMS facilitates the creation of a common picture of the situation on the ground, which is fundamental for military leaders who need to react quickly and effectively to changes on the battlefield.

A crucial aspect of CMS integration into C2 is the ability to manage information in real time, adapting quickly to changing conditions and unpredictable developments. This adaptability allows the commander to adjust strategies and decide on the deployment of resources, thus maximising the efficiency of operations. The CMS also contributes to increased collaboration between combat units, facilitating the exchange of information and the coordination of actions in a synchronised way. This inter-unit cooperation becomes vital in complex theatres of operations, where each element of the armed forces must operate as a cohesive entity.

Furthermore, CMS is not limited to information flow and coordination, but extends to analysing the impact of past decisions and forecasting future outcomes. Through advanced algorithms and modelling techniques, systems can simulate different operating scenarios and assess the risks associated with various strategies. This type of analysis enables C2 structures to develop robust, data-driven plans and informed forecasts. Thus, the role of the CMS in C2 is not only a supporting one, but becomes a central element in the modern decision-making architecture, emphasising efficiency, rapid reaction and optimised coordination of resources in complex and dynamic situations.

5.2. Operational synergy

Operational synergy is the effective and collaborative interaction between combat management systems (CMS) and command and control (C2), having a significant impact on the effectiveness of contemporary military operations. This synergy is based on the integration of information flows, which enable the rapid and precise co-ordination of resources and forces within a mission. When CMS and C2 work in harmony, a continuous dialogue between the different command and execution structures is achieved, facilitating rapid reactions to changes on the battlefield, adaptation of strategies and optimisation of the use of available resources.

In the context of operational synergy, the role of CMS extends beyond the traditional management mainstream to include analytical data processing and tactical scenario simulation. This allows commanders to anticipate enemy movements and plan actions based on possible scenarios. In addition, the use of advanced analytical and artificial intelligence algorithms improves decision capability and operational efficiency. Operational synergy thus manifests itself in the ability to turn information into action, ensuring a timely and well-coordinated response.

A crucial aspect of this synergy is the interoperability of the systems and platforms utilised by the different branches of the armed forces or by allies. This interoperability is essential to realise an effective exchange of data and communications, thus ensuring a clear overview of the situation on the ground. Interaction between the CMS and C2 is therefore becoming a key factor in the efficient conduct of multi-national operations, reducing reaction times and maximising the efficient use of available resources. In conclusion, the operational synergy between CMS and C2 is not only a process enabler, but also an essence of the modernisation and adaptability of contemporary armed forces to the emerging challenges of the global security environment.

6. Advantages of using CMS

Combat Management Systems (CMS) are an essential advancement in military operations and combat scenarios, facilitating increased situational awareness and decision-making capabilities. One of the most important benefits of using a CMS is the significant improvement in operational efficiency during engagements. By integrating real-time data analysis, geospatial intelligence and advanced communications systems, a CMS enables military personnel to coordinate complex operations more effectively. This holistic integration enables the rapid exchange of information between units, streamlining command and control processes. The ability to view the battlefield and track assets accurately leads to informed decision-making, maximising the effectiveness of tactical manoeuvres. Furthermore, this data-driven approach significantly reduces the cognitive burden on commanders, allowing them to focus on strategic oversight rather than getting bogged down in logistical details.

In addition, the implementation of a CMS drastically reduces the time needed to react during conflicts. Traditional methods of communication and coordination often result in delayed responses due to the inherent complexity of managing multiple sources of information. In contrast, a CMS consolidates critical information into a single, cohesive platform, enabling real-time updates and faster dissemination of commands. This is vital in dynamic combat conditions, where circumstances can change rapidly and the ability to respond promptly can determine the outcome of battles. For example, improved data-sharing capabilities ensure that all units have access to the same situational overview, alleviating confusion and promoting a unified operational strategy. In addition, automating certain decision-making processes within a CMS can significantly shorten the time between identifying threats and initiating appropriate responses, thereby improving overall mission success rates.

In short, the adoption of battle management systems not only increases the efficiency of military operations, but also accelerates response times in critical situations. By using sophisticated technologies to improve information flow and situational understanding, military organisations can gain a tactical advantage in the highly fluid environments of modern warfare. Consequently, CMS integration is not just an enhancement to existing systems, but a fundamental change in the way operations are conducted, ensuring that resources are utilised optimally and with the utmost precision. This alignment with overall military objectives emphasises the strategic importance of adopting such advanced systems in contemporary combat scenarios.

6.1. Combat efficiency

Combat effectiveness is an essential aspect of contemporary military strategies, and the integration of combat management systems (CMS) plays a fundamental role in maximising it. CMS systems are designed to co-ordinate the various elements of military operations, facilitating a complex orchestration of resources and forces. By analysing tactical and strategic data in real time, these systems enable commanders to make better-informed and faster decisions. For example, a CMS can integrate information from multiple sources, such as surveillance drones and ground sensors, to create a comprehensive situational picture that is essential to the dynamics of warfare.

In contrast, command and control (C2) systems are often perceived as less agile in the face of military challenges. They focus on co-ordinating forces and maintaining a line of communication between the various units, but do not always have the ability to process complex information quickly and efficiently. Thus, in a combat environment, where reaction times and adaptability are critical, CMSs prove their superiority by improving the efficiency of operations. This translates not only in optimising resources, but also in reducing human and material losses. For example, a CMS system can anticipate enemy actions by analysing patterns of behaviour and thus enable a proactive response, which is essential in tactics aimed at supremacy in the field.

In conclusion, combat effectiveness is profoundly influenced by the use of CMSs, which facilitate a rapid and informed response to battlefield challenges. This efficiency derives from the ability of systems to integrate and analyse information in a way that improves decision making and resource coordination. Without these advanced tools, the mobility of strategy and the precision of military action would be compromised, thus emphasising the importance of a modern technology-based approach to the management of combat operations.

6.2. Reducing reaction time

Reducing reaction time in the context of battle management systems (CMS) and command and control (C2) systems is a crucial aspect of operational effectiveness on the battlefield. CMS optimises decision-making processes by integrating real-time data, thus facilitating rapid reaction to immediate threats. By automating information flows and advanced data analysis, these systems enable military leaders to quickly assess the tactical situation, identify priorities and coordinate available resources with greater precision.

In contrast to traditional C2 systems, which can suffer from delays due to inter-human communication and bureaucratic processes, CMS facilitates a more agile and straightforward workflow. Information is centralised and distributed efficiently, and operators have access to analytics that help them predict developments in enemy operations. This anticipation capability is key to reducing reaction times. For example, during a confrontation, a CMS system can integrate data from multiple sources, such as reconnaissance drones, radars and satellite information, providing a big picture with constant updates that support operational decisions.

In addition to these technological aspects, significant reductions in response time also derive from improved staff training and education. Well-trained personnel, familiar with the use of CMS systems, are able to intervene more effectively in critical situations, minimising the time needed to assess and act on threats. This synergy between technology and human expertise contributes not only to saving lives, but also to optimising military resources, leading to more efficient and faster operations. In this way, CMS not only reduces reaction time, but redefines the way modern military missions are carried out, ensuring success in complex and constantly changing environments.

7. Advantages of using C2

Command & Control (C2) systems offer a number of significant advantages that are essential for the effective coordination of military operations and resource management. Among these benefits are flexibility in strategy and centralised control, which together contribute to a rapid and effective response to the bottlenecks of change on the battlefield. Flexibility in strategy allows leaders to adapt operations to the dynamics of the situations encountered, facilitating the rapid implementation of tactical decisions based on up-to-date information. This adaptability is not just theoretical; it is demonstrated in numerous military encounters where scenarios are rapidly evolving and C2 is becoming the primary tool by which armed forces can reconfigure their plans in real time. Moreover, the integration of data from different sources helps to develop complex strategies, taking into account not only the available resources but also the enemy’s behaviour and intentions.

On the other hand, centralised control becomes another crucial advantage of using C2 systems. By centralising information and decisions, C2 facilitates better coordination between the various units, ensuring that all elements involved in an operation act according to the same strategic directives. This type of control not only optimises the use of resources but also improves communication between operational units. In crisis situations, an effective C2 system can make the difference between success and failure, as it provides concrete visibility on available resources and the progress of operations. Lack of this control can lead to disorganisation and significant losses.

Finally, the use of C2 systems not only enhances the effectiveness of military operations, but also strengthens the strategic position of the armed forces in the face of contemporary challenges. In conclusion, strategic flexibility and centralised control are essential tools in the armoury of modern military forces, enabling them to adapt quickly, communicate effectively and ultimately win against adversaries in complex and ever-changing scenarios.

7.1. Flexibility in strategies

Flexibility in strategies, in the context of the difference between Combat Management System (CMS) and Command and Control (C2), is a fundamental element influencing the effectiveness of modern military operations. Combat strategies must adapt quickly to emerging tactical and strategic variables, and C2 is proving essential in facilitating an agile response. Through a C2 system, commanders can quickly assess real-time information, with the ability to modify action plans or develop new strategies based on the current situation on the ground. This adaptability is not only a matter of operational efficiency, but also of survival on the battlefield, where circumstances can change unexpectedly.

In contrast, CMS, although integrated and highly effective in coordinating resources and implementing predefined strategies, may have limitations in terms of flexibility. CMS systems are often designed to track and manage the deployment of established tactics, and are less agile in quickly adjusting strategies based on variable inputs. This rigidity can arise in the context of an operation where rapid decisions are vital. Thus, while the CMS provides a robust framework for organising and monitoring actions, C2 captures the importance of rapid reaction, thus placing itself in a favourable position to adapt strategies based on operational feedback.

In conclusion, flexibility in strategies derives from the effective integration of C2 systems, which facilitate not only assessment but also informed decisions, while CMS focuses on the co-ordination of established methodologies. This distinction emphasised not only that each system serves a specific purpose, but also that in complex operations, this flexibility becomes a critical battlefield advantage. The rapid adjustment of strategies, taking advantage of C2 information flows, ensures that forces are always prepared to respond effectively and resourcefully to emerging challenges.

7.2. Centralised control

Centralised control refers to a type of system in which strategic and operational decisions are concentrated in a single point of authority, facilitating effective coordination of actions. In the context of military operations management or resource control, this model provides a unified view of the conduct of actions, allowing leaders to quickly adjust strategies to battlefield conditions. By centralising information, C2 (Command and Control) improves the flow of data and communication between units, creating an environment conducive to rapid and effective response to challenges and threats.

One of the advantages of centralised control is the ability to optimise resources. Decisions taken centrally can efficiently redeploy equipment and forces according to the immediate needs of the operation, thus maximising the impact of the forces in action. This tactical distribution minimising waste of resources contributes to the overall effectiveness of operations. Centralised decision-making also enables more precise mission planning, long-term thinking and adaptability to unpredictable changes in the situation on the ground.

However, centralised control can bring some challenges. For example, such a structure can lead to excessive rigidity, limiting the ability of units to act autonomously in the face of rapidly fluctuating circumstances. Delays in relaying information from sub-units to the central level can affect the response to critical situations. Moreover, in cases where centralisation becomes too oppressive, it can create a disconnect between decision-makers and the reality on the battlefield. Thus, a C2 system based on centralised control needs to integrate sufficient feedback channels and facilitate initiative at the level of executive teams in order to remain effective and adaptive.

Centralised control is therefore a double-edged sword; while it provides strong coordination and efficient use of resources, a balance must be struck between authority and autonomy in order not to compromise responsiveness and innovation in the field. This balanced approach is essential for optimising performance in complex operations.

8. CMS challenges

The challenges undertaken by a CMS are varied and complex, significantly influencing its effectiveness in operational situations. One of the biggest challenges is the complexity of integration. CMS systems must integrate a multitude of data from diverse sources, including sensors, communications platforms and intelligence databases. This amalgamation of critical information requires advanced algorithms to analyse data to ensure rapid and accurate assessment of combat situations. In addition, the lack of interoperability between different platforms and systems can lead to delays in decision making, thus affecting the coordination of forces and the conduct of operations.

In addition to integration complexity, technology dependency is another significant challenge for CMS. In a world of rapidly advancing technology, CMS systems are often vulnerable to cyber-attacks that can compromise data integrity and operations. Hacking, malware or even hardware failures can cripple operations, leaving forces without the ability to react promptly to emerging threats. What’s more, this reliance on technology imposes a number of demands on staff training. Operators must have a thorough understanding of the systems in use, and constant training is required to cope with the ever-changing demands of the operational environment.

In conclusion, CMS challenges are closely linked to the complexity of integration and dependence on technology, each with profound implications on the operability and effectiveness of forces. Addressing these challenges requires significant resources and an appropriate strategy that integrates technology with continuous training of personnel, thereby ensuring a timely and effective response in blessing complex defence and national security challenges. This is not only a technological issue, but also a strategic-tactical one that directly influences the way operations are conducted in the contemporary combat environment.

8.1. The complexity of integration

The integration of combat management systems (CMS) with command and control (C2) frameworks presents significant complexities arising from inherent differences in operational objectives and functional architectures. While CMS focuses primarily on coordinating combat operations by managing resources such as personnel, equipment, and weapon systems, C2 systems are designed for comprehensive decision making, providing situational awareness, and managing broader operational commands. The integration process must therefore address not only the technical interoperability of disparate systems, but also the compatibility of operational philosophies and user interfaces.

A major aspect of this complexity is the need to harmonise the various data formats and communication protocols inherent in different systems. Each system may use its own set of standards for data representation, which complicates unified data processing and sharing. In addition, the dynamic nature of military operations further exacerbates integration challenges. Real-time data transmission and analysis are essential for effective decision making; however, latency introduced during data conversion or system synchronisation can undermine operational efficiency. In addition, training staff to operate effectively within these integrated systems requires a concerted effort as individuals must navigate the complexities of CMS and C2 modalities.

Security considerations add another level of complexity to CMS and C2 integration. The multidimensional nature of military operations requires the incorporation of robust cybersecurity measures, as the fusion of systems can create vulnerabilities that can be exploited by adversaries. The requirement for real-time information exchange, coupled with stringent security protocols, can create tensions between operational efficiency and protecting sensitive data. As technological advances continue to evolve, so does the need for adaptive integration strategies that not only encompass existing systems, but also anticipate future developments in battle management and command technologies. Therefore, achieving seamless integration of CMS and C2 is essential – this requires a multi-faceted approach, one that combines technical prowess, operational knowledge and strategic vision.

8.2. Technology dependence

The reliance on technology in the context of Combat Management Systems (CMS) and Command and Control (C2) emphasises the critical challenges and implications of the advanced use of technology in the coordination of military operations. While CMS utilises sophisticated technologies to facilitate rapid and informed interaction between combat units, this reliance comes with a distinct set of risks. The technology risks are layered and include vulnerabilities to cyberattacks, software and hardware failures, and interoperability issues between the different systems in use. When organisations become overly dependent on technology, there can be gaps in their ability to respond to a crisis situation where the technology does not perform as expected.

By comparison, C2 relies on a combination of technical and procedural elements to facilitate tactical and strategic decisions. C2 systems are designed to support less technology-dependent decision making, often integrating information from a variety of sources, including human intelligence and field observations. This holistic approach enables greater adaptability in the face of unpredictable challenges. In the event that network security measures fail, or when technology grounders, C2 structures can remain functional through alternative methods of communication and control, such as human resources and standardised operating procedures.

Thus, the reliance on technology within CMS emphasises the need to implement effective risk management strategies that serve not only operational effectiveness but also the integrity of operations in the face of cyber threats and potential technological failures. Staff organisation and training must be designed to ensure a rapid and effective response, even in the absence of optimal technological support. This duality between technological advances and human resources is essential to build a resilient system capable of functioning effectively under diverse operational conditions. Awareness of these issues is vital to navigate contemporary challenges in the field of battle management.

9. C2 challenges

Command and Control (C2) challenges are varied and complex, having a major impact on the effectiveness and success of military operations. One of the most significant difficulties lies in inter-agency co-ordination, a problem that is becoming increasingly acute in the context of cross-functional and allied operations. The diversity of agencies involved, each with their own structures, procedures and priorities, complicates decision-making and resource allocation. Thus, lack of harmonisation can lead to delays in responding to crises and ultimately to sub-optimal results. At the same time, the need to standardise communications and interaction protocols becomes imperative, with collisions between different organisational cultures amplifying these challenges.

Another key aspect of C2 challenges is information management. In the digital age, the volume of available data has increased exponentially and the ability to filter, analyse and integrate this information is crucial. Unstructured or contradictory information can lead to confusion and erroneous decisions, thus affecting the quality of operational actions. Cyber security is also becoming a major concern, given the risks associated with cyber attacks on information systems. Protecting sensitive data and ensuring its integrity become weekly priorities, with direct implications on threat response strategies.

In conclusion, the significant challenges in C2 are interconnected and require a systematic approach that integrates advanced technology, training and clear collaborative policies. Addressing these challenges will not only increase the efficiency of operations, but will also facilitate the maintenance of coherence among the various entities involved, thus contributing to the strategic success of missions. Continuous efforts to adapt and innovate are essential to respond to emerging challenges in the global geostrategic landscape.

9.1. Coordination between civil and military organisations

Coordination between civilian and military organisations is an essential aspect in the management of operations in a military and civilian context, even in situations of crisis or conflict. This coordination involves integrated collaboration between different organisations, institutions or units working towards common objectives. National security, resource management and emergency response depend to a large extent on the ability of these entities to communicate effectively and act in synergy.

In essence, effective inter-agency coordination requires not only a clearly defined operational framework, but also a robust information management system. Thus, it is essential that agencies have the appropriate tools in place to facilitate the exchange of information in real time, enabling rapid and efficient reactions. Combat Management Systems (CMS) and Command and Control (C2) systems play a crucial role in this context, ensuring that all participants have relevant and up-to-date data at their disposal to make informed decisions. In addition, a thorough understanding of inter-agency dynamics and interactions is mandatory to minimise confusion and misunderstandings that could affect mission deployment.

Another determining factor in inter-agency coordination is the organisational culture of each entity involved. Institutional values, norms and practices influence how agencies work together. An open culture, which encourages dialogue and cooperation, not only optimises coordination processes, but also helps to create a collaborative mindset between the agencies involved. It is also vital that agencies participate in joint exercises and training sessions to familiarise themselves with each other’s procedures and operating styles, which not only improves interoperability but also mutual trust. This synergy is not only beneficial during operations, but also helps to form a solid foundation for future co-operation initiatives, essential in ensuring a stable and efficient operational environment.

9.2. Information management

Information management in the context of combat systems and Command and Control (C2) is a crucial component that determines the effectiveness of military operations. This information is not just raw data; it includes strategic intelligence, situational analyses and operational feedback, essential for the formulation of tactical and strategic decisions. A Combat Management System (CMS) focuses its activities on the management of battlefield information, providing users with the ability to integrate, analyse and distribute various data streams. In contrast, C2 systems, which take a broader approach, co-ordinate not only information, but also the human and logistical resources involved in various operations.

An essential element of C2 information management is real-time information processing. This involves not only collecting data from a variety of sources, but also utilising advanced algorithms to transform this data into relevant information for commanders. In a complex operations environment, where speed and accuracy are crucial, rapid information processing can determine the success or failure of a mission. For example, the integration of artificial intelligence technologies enables predictive analysis, helping to anticipate enemy movements or manage risks. This capability improves not only reaction but also long-term planning, emphasising the importance of a coherent information management system.

In addition, information management also involves ensuring data integrity and security. From authorising access to sensitive information to implementing safeguards against cyber-attacks, this is a constant challenge. An effective CMS must have robust security protocols in place to prevent information compromise, while C2 systems must coordinate these measures with other organisational structures. In conclusion, information management is not just a technical issue; it directly influences the outcome of operations, emphasising the interdependence between data management and the success of military strategies.

10. Case Study: CMS Implementation

The implementation of a Combat Management System (CMS) is a complex process that requires the integration of advanced technologies, operational standards and personnel training. An example could be the adoption of a CMS by a military organisation, which aims to improve coordination between different units and optimise decision making under combat conditions. The initial implementation phase included assessing the existing infrastructure, identifying gaps in operations management capabilities and establishing a detailed plan for the integration of the new system. The company chosen to deliver the CMS provided customised solutions based on the specific needs of the client and the particularities of the operational environment in which it would operate.

This initiative was carried out in several phases, each with clearly defined objectives. The first stage consisted in organising training sessions for key staff, with the aim of familiarising them with the CMS interface and functionalities. This was followed by simulations of operations using the newly deployed software, which allowed users to understand the workflows and adapt quickly. At this stage, relevant data was collected to assess the efficiency of the system under operational stress. Finally, the initial assessment of the impact of the CMS on team co-ordination, reaction speed and decision accuracy showed a significant improvement, which emphasises the importance of a well-structured implementation.

Analysing the results revealed not only the benefits of the new system, but also the challenges encountered along the way. Efforts to achieve interoperability between the existing equipment and the CMS, as well as obtaining ongoing support from the organisation’s management, proved to be crucial to the success of the implementation. User feedback was indispensable in fine-tuning and finalising system parameters, thus contributing to the development of a solution that effectively met operational and strategic needs. This analytical and adaptive approach demonstrates how military technology integration can radically transform an organisation’s ability to manage complex operations, and is an example of best practice that can be replicated in different contexts.

10.1. Military example

In the military and security domain, Combat Management Systems (CMS) are critical for the efficient integration of operational data and the coordination of various resources. A relevant example is the implementation of a modern CMS system in the US Navy, known as the Aegis Combat System. This system, used on warships, allows the integration and real-time processing of information from various sources, thus facilitating rapid response to threats.

Through Aegis, commanders can manage complex tactics with the ability to coordinate multi-mode attacks against emerging threats. The core elements of Aegis include an advanced radar, a fire management system and various interception platforms, which work in synergy to create a unified operational picture. This synergy is essential in relation to command and control (C2) decisions by ensuring a rapid and effective response to emergencies. Aegis also demonstrates how technology integration and data analysis processes can significantly improve operational efficiency, serving as a concrete example of the application of CMS systems in a complex environment.

On the other hand, in an international operation, an alliance of forces deploying a C2 system may face challenges in coordinating data between the various participating nations. Unlike a CMS that encompasses a single set of platforms and resources, C2 often relies on interagency communication and manual synchronisation of information. Here, the fundamental differences in functionality become apparent: while CMS has a high degree of automation and integration, C2 requires strategic placement of human teams to ensure coordination across multiple entities. Thus, the Aegis example not only highlights the applications of CMS within a sophisticated defence structure, but also illustrates how these systems can transform the way armed forces respond to real-time challenges, maximising operational efficiency and minimising risk.

10.2 Analysing the results

Analysing the performance of combat management systems (CMS) in relation to command and control (C2) systems provides essential insights into the efficiency and effectiveness of modern military operations. Evaluating these systems involves measuring impact on various dimensions, including reaction time, data integration and unit co-ordination. Some case studies indicate that the implementation of CMS can significantly reduce the time required to obtain a complete picture of the situation on the battlefield, facilitating a rapid and relevant response to a threat. Therefore, the divergences in the approaches used by CMS and C2 become apparent; while C2 focuses on information flow and strategic decisions, CMS tends to optimise real-time operational resource management.

A crucial aspect in analysing results is to assess how these systems capture and analyse data from the field. CMS often integrates with advanced data collection technologies, such as drones and advanced sensors, to provide real-time information about combat conditions. This allows commanders not only to react more quickly, but also to plan strategic actions based on up-to-date and accurate information. In contrast, C2 systems generally rely on a more rigid hierarchical structure, which can limit their ability to adapt to rapidly changing battlefield dynamics.

Evaluation of the impact and effectiveness of CMS compared to C2 reveals not only an improvement in operational responses, but also a closer match between military strategy and tactical implementation on the ground. Also, a necessary element to consider is the integration of interagencies and interoperability between the different entities using these systems. Thus, analysing the results becomes a vital tool for the continuous improvement of military doctrine, indicating the need for constant updating of the technologies used and the methodologies for data analysis to meet emerging challenges. This dynamic interplay between CMS and C2 highlights a trend of rapid advancement in the effectiveness of complex operations, shaping the future of modern warfare in a profoundly novel and adaptive way.

11. Case study: Implementing C2

The implementation of command and control (C2) systems in a military organisation is proving to be a complex process, but essential for effective operations. An eloquent example of this implementation can be found in NATO, where C2 technology has evolved significantly to meet the needs of people-to-people operations, particularly in asymmetric warfare scenarios. C2 enables the integration of information from diverse sources, facilitating a rapid and informed response to threats. A case study illustrating this implementation is the joint military exercise ‘Trident Juncture’, which involved forces from several nations coordinated through an advanced C2 system capable of centralising data from land, air and sea units. This system has demonstrated not only the ability to manage available resources, but also the ability to facilitate effective communication between different commands, thus having a significant impact on reaction time and mission effectiveness.

The impact of C2 implementation on operations is not only in terms of tactical efficiency, but also in the development of an organisational culture that promotes interoperability. Throughout the exercises conducted, it has become clear that C2 is not only a technological tool, but also an element of cohesion between different units. It develops a collaborative and adaptive mindset, essential for success in complex and changing environments. By integrating C2 systems, military structures have been able to prioritise critical information, reduce redundancies in resource management and optimise force organisation during operations. This synergy between technology and operational awareness demonstrates that C2 can radically transform the way armed forces operate, better preparing them for the contemporary challenges of modern warfare. Therefore, the relevant case studies provide a detailed insight into the implementation of C2, outlining not only the derived strategic benefits, but also the long-term implications for military structures.

11.1. Military example

In the context of modern military operations, the differentiation between Combat Management System (CMS) and Command and Control (C2) is essential for a thorough understanding of how technology and strategy integrate. A pertinent example is the use of C2 systems in the scenario of the manoeuvre that took place during the ‘Strike Storm’ exercise deployed by the armed forces of a NATO nation. This manoeuvre demonstrated not only the technical capabilities but also the complexity of the interaction between command decisions and the implementation of effective tactics in the field.

C2 systems are responsible for coordinating not only resources but also battlefield information. During the exercise, the C2 structure enabled the integration of data from various sources, such as reconnaissance drones and sensors in the field. This information was processed to quickly analyse the operational situation and facilitate decision-making. For example, during the exercise, effective C2 enabled the rapid identification of enemy movements, which led to tactical adjustments to protect the units involved in the operations. This ability to adapt quickly and react proactively is what defines to a large extent the effectiveness of a C2 system compared to a CMS, which focuses more on specific combat resource management and direct data analysis for tactical operations.

Contrary to this one-dimensional definition, a Combat Management System provides a technological basis where operational response is organised and monitored, and is essential for improving unit performance in asymmetric conflicts. Thus, in Strike Storm, the CMS managed resources such as combat vehicles and support equipment, optimising logistics and ensuring that each unit had the resources it needed in real time. However, the essence of successful operations remains the fluid and efficient interaction between C2, which provides a long-term strategic vision, and CMS, which executes tactical operations efficiently. This symbiosis between the two systems is a clear example of how technology enhances the war-fighting capabilities of today’s armed forces, thereby maximising the effectiveness and impact of military operations.

11.2. Impact on operations

The implementation of combat management systems (CMS) and command and control (C2) systems has a significant impact on the manning of military operations, with strategic, tactical and technical implications. These systems enable more effective co-ordination of forces, thereby facilitating synergy between different units and ensuring that critical information is passed quickly and accurately. For example, in a complex conflict, CMSs integrate data from multiple sources, such as advanced sensors and real-time communications, facilitating informed decision-making. This integration not only optimises available resources but also improves rapid reaction to unpredictable situations.

Another key aspect of the impact of these systems on operations is their ability to support combat manoeuvre by providing a common view of the battlefield. Analysing the information flows generated by CMS and C2, we observe that such transparency reduces the information chaos that often accompanies military operations. This clarity allows commanders to adapt their strategies and tactics based on a real-time assessment of the situation, resulting in greater operational efficiency. The integration of these systems also helps to minimise human and material casualties by providing increased operational discipline.

At the same time, the impact of these technologies on the interaction between the different branches of the armed forces is particularly relevant. C2 and CMS facilitate a common language and unified understanding, essential for the coordination of joint operations. This not only enhances efficiency, but promises a greater ability to respond to complex strategic decisions, as evidenced by recent successful examples in military campaigns where land, water and air units have operated more integrated than in the past. In conclusion, the interplay between CMS and C2 is radically transforming the way military operations are designed and deployed, having a profound effect on the overall efficiency and performance of the armed forces.

12. Future trends in CMS and C2

Future trends in combat management systems (CMS) and command and control (C2) are being shaped by a dynamic combination of technological innovations and developments in warfighting tactics. As threats become more complex and unpredictable, homeland security increasingly relies on the advanced integration of artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics, and autonomous systems. These technological advances enable rapid intelligence gathering and analysis, improving operational decisions and response times. For example, using drones for reconnaissance and real-time data division will transform the way armed forces plan and execute their missions.

Another key aspect of the evolution of CMS and C2 is the integration of diverse communications platforms, which facilitates more effective coordination between different units and allies. The deployment of ad-hoc networks based on mesh technologies will enable operation in environments with little or no signal, ensuring continuity of strategic actions. In addition, new tools will emerge that improve interagency and joint collaboration, encouraging a joint response system that transcends national boundaries. This increased connectivity will facilitate not only coordinated action, but also the rapid sharing of knowledge and resources in the face of emerging challenges.

As the transnational and terrorist threat bubble continues to expand, warfighting strategies will require constant adaptation. Hybrid warfare tactics, which combine conventional aggression with subversion and information warfare, will profoundly influence the way CMS and C2 are designed. Significant emphasis will be placed on training personnel to respond rapidly to a wide range of tactical scenarios, integrating cyber warfare concepts and psychological influence techniques. Thus, the future in CMS and C2 will involve not only a modernisation of technologies, but also a reinvention of military doctrine, ensuring that their operation remains relevant in an ever-changing geopolitical landscape.

12.1. Technological innovations

In today’s military operations landscape, innovative technologies are fundamentally reshaping the dynamic between combat management systems (CMS) and command and control (C2) frameworks. At the centre of these innovations is the integration of advanced data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms that facilitate increased situational awareness and decision-making capabilities. With the ability to process vast datasets in real time, these systems enable commanders to interpret information quickly and accurately, favouring an adaptive response to fluid operational environments. For example, predictive analytics can suggest optimal troop deployments based on historical data and emerging patterns, significantly increasing operational efficiency.

Moreover, the deployment of cloud computing and edge technologies is revolutionising the accessibility and distribution of information across different units and platforms. This technological shift allows seamless collaboration between forces, enabling a more integrated approach to operations. Instead of operating in silos, C2 technologies can establish a networked information environment where command posts and frontline units instantly share critical information. This collective intelligence is vital for making informed decisions and executing coordinated actions, ensuring that engagement strategies are not only timely, but based on comprehensive analysis.

In addition, the emergence of unmanned systems, including drones and autonomous vehicles, has introduced new dimensions in battlefield management. These platforms rely heavily on sophisticated sensors and AI algorithms to gather intelligence, conduct reconnaissance and even execute missions autonomously. Integrating them into existing CMS frameworks allows for greater flexibility in operations, as these assets can be deployed in high-risk scenarios where human presence may be unsustainable. As technological innovations continue to evolve, the interface between CMS and C2 will undoubtedly undergo further transformations, acclimatising to the demands of modern warfare and improving overall operational readiness. The interplay of these technologies is essential in shaping future strategic approaches, emphasising the need for continuous adaptation and integration in military planning and execution.

12.2. Evolution of combat tactics

In recent decades, the evolution of war-fighting tactics has undergone significant transformations, influenced mainly by technological advances and changes in the global geopolitical landscape. Modern tactics have rapidly adapted to new conflict realities, incorporating concepts such as mobility, flexibility and the integration of interagency actions. As asymmetric conflict has thus become a defining characteristic of contemporary warfare, emphasising the use of unconventional groups and the application of strategies that leverage terrain and information advantages over conventional force masses.

Given the geopolitical stakes of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, wars have transformed from direct confrontations between national armies into complex conflicts with multiple actors, including states, terrorist organisations and paramilitary groups. In this context, war-fighting tactics have diversified beyond classic battles to include stabilisation and nation-building operations. The ‘innovation effect’ tactic has been adopted, facilitating the integration of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence and drones, which are changing the way information is collected and distributed on the battlefield.

Another key direction in the evolution of battle tactics is the focus on cyber and information warfare. In today’s contexts, battles are no longer fought only on the ground, but also in the digital environment, where information can be manipulated for strategic advantage. Modern tactics aim not only to destroy enemies, but also to undermine the social and economic cohesion of their by using tools to influence public perception. The evolution of combat tactics therefore reflects a continuous and sophisticated adaptation to the challenges and opportunities of the contemporary world, with profound implications for the way modern conflicts are conceived and conducted.

Bibliography

Command and control at land force group level – Lieutenant-Colonel Mihai-Cristian STANCU – Romanian Military Thinking no.1/2022 – https://gmr.mapn.ro/webroot/fileslib/upload/files/arhiva%20GMR/2022%20gmr/2022/GMR%201/STANCU.pdf – accessed on 11 June 2025
Federated Mission Networking (FMN) – Carlos Graça – 2017 – https://core.ac.uk/download/223216722.pdf – accessed 15 June 2025
C2 – command and control: a system of systems to accompany complexity – Bernard Claverie, Gilles Desclaux – 2016
C2 – command and control: a system of systems to accompany complexity – Claverie, B. & Desclaux, G. (2016).
Global Title X Series: Game Overview – Wargaming Department – 2013 – https://core.ac.uk/download/236320973.pdf – accessed 17 June 2025
Investigation into standardising the graphical and operator input device modules for tactical command and control man-machine interfaces – Caireen E Alston – 1994
E Alston, C. (1994). Investigation into standardising the graphical and operator input device modules for tactical command and control man-machine interfaces.
Comparative analysis of kill probability one of the main features of Air Defense Integrated Systems – Vasile SANDRU, Mircea BOSCOIANU 2014 – https://core.ac.uk/download/25700618.pdf – accessed on 17 June 2025
Creation of a C4ISR research, development and innovation programme team – Adalberto Santos – 2017 – https://core.ac.uk/reader/223216840 – accesat pe 18 iunie 2025
ASPECTS OF EMPLOYING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE FIGHTING AREA – Gheorghe CALOPĂREANU – 2018
Federated Mission Networking (FMN) – Graça, C. (2017) – https://core.ac.uk/download/223216722.pdf – accessed 19 June 2025

Combat Management System versus Command and Control (C2)

Leave a Reply Cancel reply